State Funding for Access to Advanced Placement (AP) Courses for Immigrants in Maryland

1. How does Maryland allocate funding for AP courses for immigrant students?

Maryland does not have a specific allocation of funding for AP courses specifically for immigrant students. The state provides funding for all public school students, including those who are immigrants, based on their enrollment in the school district and the programs they are enrolled in.

2. Are there any specific initiatives or resources available to support immigrant students taking AP courses?

Yes, there are several initiatives and resources available to support immigrant students taking AP courses in Maryland:

– English Learner (EL) Programs: These programs provide additional support and instruction for immigrant students who are learning English as a second language.
– Dual Enrollment Programs: In addition to AP courses, Maryland offers dual enrollment programs that allow high school students to earn college credit while still in high school. These programs can be particularly beneficial for immigrant students who may face barriers to accessing higher education.
– Language Assistance Resources: The state provides language assistance resources for non-English speaking families, such as translation services and bilingual staff, to help immigrant families navigate the education system and support their children’s academic success.
– College Preparation and Access Programs: Maryland has several programs aimed at increasing college access and readiness among low-income and underrepresented student groups, which often include immigrants. These programs provide resources such as test preparation, college counseling, and financial aid assistance.
– School-Based Support: Individual schools may also offer additional support systems for immigrant students taking AP courses, such as peer tutoring or after-school study groups.

3. How does Maryland ensure equal access to AP courses for all immigrant students?

Maryland has policies in place to ensure that all eligible students have access to AP courses regardless of their immigration status. Schools are required by federal law to enroll all children living within their district boundaries regardless of their immigration status, under Plyler v. Doe (1982). Additionally, the state has implemented various efforts to promote equity in AP course participation:

– Outreach Efforts: Schools are encouraged to actively reach out to underrepresented and marginalized student groups, including immigrant students, to ensure they are aware of and have access to AP courses.
– Waiver of Exam Fees: The state will cover the cost of AP exam fees for low-income students in grades 9-12, including immigrant students, to remove financial barriers to participation.
– Virtual and Online Options: In addition to traditional classroom-based AP courses, Maryland also offers virtual and online options for students who may face difficulty attending classes in person. This can be particularly beneficial for immigrant students who may have other obligations outside of school.
– Removing Prerequisites: Many schools have eliminated prerequisite requirements for AP courses, making them more accessible to a wider range of students, including immigrant students.

Ultimately, it is the responsibility of individual schools and districts to ensure that all eligible students have equal access to AP courses.

2. What criteria does Maryland use to determine which schools receive funding for AP courses for immigrant students?


Maryland uses two main criteria to determine which schools receive funding for AP courses for immigrant students:

1. Percentage of English Language Learners (ELLs) in the school: Schools with a high percentage of ELLs are given priority for receiving funding for AP courses. This is because these schools typically have a higher need for resources to support their immigrant student population.

2. Title I eligibility: Schools that are designated as Title I schools, meaning they serve a high proportion of low-income students, are also given priority for receiving funding for AP courses. This is because research has shown that low-income students, including immigrants, often face additional barriers when it comes to accessing rigorous coursework like AP classes.

In addition to these two criteria, Maryland also considers each school’s overall academic profile and performance when making decisions about funding for AP courses. However, the percentage of English Language Learners and Title I eligibility remain the primary factors in determining which schools receive funding specifically for immigrant students.

3. Is there a specific budget set aside for providing access to AP courses for immigrant students in Maryland?


There is not a specific budget set aside for providing access to AP courses for immigrant students in Maryland. However, the state does have several initiatives and programs in place to support underrepresented students, including immigrant students, in accessing and succeeding in AP courses. These include:

1. The Maryland College Access Challenge Grant (MCACG): This grant program provides funding to high schools and community-based organizations to increase college readiness and enrollment, with a focus on supporting underrepresented students, including immigrants. This can potentially include support and resources for students pursuing AP courses.

2. Advanced Placement Test Fee Subsidy Program: This program is offered by the Maryland State Department of Education (MSDE) and covers the cost of one AP exam per student for low-income students who are eligible for Free or Reduced-Price Meals (FRPM).

3. Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID) Program: AVID is a program that provides academic support and mentoring services to help underrepresented students, especially those from immigrant backgrounds, achieve academic success and prepare for college-level courses such as AP classes.

4. MSDE Secondary Course Code Initiative: This initiative works to improve equity and access within Maryland’s secondary education system by creating new course codes to track participation data on traditionally underrepresented groups in advanced coursework, such as immigrant students.

Overall, while there may not be a specific budget set aside solely for providing access to AP courses for immigrant students, there are various state initiatives and programs in place that seek to promote equity and increase opportunities for all students to participate in advanced coursework.

4. Are there any special initiatives or grants available in Maryland to support AP courses for immigrant students?


There are several special initiatives and grants available in Maryland to support AP courses for immigrant students:

1. The Maryland State Department of Education offers the English Learners Refugee Handbook, which provides guidance and resources for schools to support the academic and social needs of refugee and immigrant students, including those enrolled in AP courses.

2. The Maryland Multicultural Coalition (MMCT) offers the Migrant Student Leadership Institute, which is a week-long residential program designed to provide leadership training, college preparation, and cultural enrichment opportunities for migrant students. This can help prepare immigrant students for success in AP courses.

3. The Hispanic College Fund provides scholarships and resources for Hispanic/Latinx students in Maryland who are interested in pursuing AP courses and higher education.

4. The Governor’s Office of Crime Prevention, Youth, and Victim Services offers the Youth Violence Prevention Grants Program, which funds programs that promote positive youth development and academic success for at-risk youth, including immigrant students.

5. Non-profit organizations such as CASA de Maryland offer assistance to immigrant families through their education program, which includes support for enrollment in AP courses and other advanced coursework.

6. Some school districts in Maryland may have their own initiatives or grants specifically geared towards supporting immigrant students’ access to AP courses. It is worth checking with your local school district or school for more information.

5. How does Maryland ensure that all eligible immigrant students have access to AP courses?


Maryland ensures that all eligible immigrant students have access to AP courses through a variety of efforts, including:

1. Inclusion of immigrant and diversity issues in statewide curriculum standards: The Maryland State Department of Education incorporates immigrant and diversity issues and perspectives into the state’s curriculum standards for all subjects, including AP courses.

2. Comprehensive English proficiency support programs: Maryland offers comprehensive English proficiency programs to help students, including immigrants, acquire the language skills necessary to succeed in AP courses.

3. Collaborative partnerships with community organizations: Maryland has established partnerships with community organizations that work with immigrant communities to increase awareness and access to AP courses. These organizations help identify potential candidates for AP courses and provide support services such as tutoring, study groups, and other academic resources.

4. Affirmation of eligibility for financial aid: Maryland affirms the eligibility of eligible immigrant students for federal financial assistance, ensuring that they have the necessary resources to enroll in AP courses.

5. Professional development opportunities: The state offers professional development opportunities for teachers and administrators on working with immigrant students in diverse classrooms, including strategies for supporting their success in rigorous coursework like AP classes.

6. Concurrent enrollment agreements with community colleges: Through concurrent enrollment agreements between high schools and community colleges, eligible immigrant students can take college-level courses while still in high school without facing barriers related to immigration status or language proficiency.

7. Accessible information about AP course offerings: The Maryland State Department of Education provides accessible information about available AP course offerings through its website and other communication channels so that all eligible students are aware of their options.

8. Flexible requirements for document submission: To ensure that immigration status is not a barrier to enrollments in AP courses, Maryland accepts a variety of documents as proof of identification from undocumented or recently arrived immigrants who may not have traditional forms of ID.

9. Data collection and analysis: The state collects data on student enrollment in AP courses by race/ethnicity, language proficiency, and immigration status to identify any potential disparities and take proactive steps to address them.

6. What measures has Maryland taken to address any potential barriers or inequalities in access to AP courses for immigrant students?


1. Expansion of AP Courses: The Maryland State Department of Education (MSDE) has collaborated with the College Board to expand access to AP courses in more schools across the state, particularly in underrepresented communities.

2. Equity and Access Policy: MSDE has implemented an Equity and Access Policy that ensures all students have equitable access to rigorous coursework, including AP classes, regardless of their background or socioeconomic status.

3. Professional Development for Educators: The state provides professional development opportunities for teachers to help them better support immigrant students in AP courses, including strategies for language acquisition and cultural understanding.

4. Partnership with Community Organizations: MSDE partners with community organizations such as English Language Learner (ELL) Parent Centers to provide resources and support for immigrant families, including information about AP courses and how to enroll their children.

5. Dual Enrollment Programs: Maryland offers dual enrollment programs that allow high school students, including immigrant students, to earn college credit by taking college-level courses while still in high school, including some AP courses.

6. Multilingual Resources: MSDE provides multilingual resources on its website and at schools such as translated parent guides for the AP program and translated materials on course options and enrollment processes.

7. College Readiness Programs: Maryland’s Gaining Early Awareness & Readiness for Undergraduate Programs (GEAR UP) initiative supports eligible low-income students, many of whom are immigrants or children of immigrants, by providing resources and opportunities to help them succeed in challenging classes like AP courses.

8. Financial Assistance for Course Fees: Low-income students can receive financial assistance from the state through voucher programs to cover the cost of AP exam fees, making it more accessible for immigrant students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds.

9. Outreach Efforts: In order to reach immigrant populations throughout the state and inform them about AP opportunities, MSDE conducts outreach efforts through community events, partnerships with diverse organizations, and collaboration with district officials working directly with immigrant families.

10. Counseling and Guidance Services: Schools in Maryland offer counseling and guidance services for students, including immigrant students, to help them understand their academic options and choose courses that align with their interests and goals, including AP courses.

7. Does Maryland consider the diversity and needs of its immigrant student population when allocating funds for AP courses?


Yes, Maryland takes into account the diversity and needs of its immigrant student population when allocating funds for AP courses. The state has a diverse student population with a significant number of students who are immigrants or children of immigrants. The state’s budget for education includes funds specifically allocated for programs and services aimed at supporting English Language Learners (ELLs), including those in Advanced Placement courses.

Additionally, Maryland offers a variety of resources and support for immigrant students to help them succeed in AP courses. For example, the state has developed specific guidelines and accommodations for ELL students taking AP exams, such as providing translation support or extra time on the exam.

Moreover, Maryland’s Department of Education provides professional development opportunities for teachers focused on meeting the needs of diverse learners, including ELLs. These trainings aim to improve instruction and ensure equal access to rigorous coursework, such as AP courses, for all students.

In summary, Maryland recognizes the unique challenges and needs of its immigrant student population and has taken steps to allocate funds and provide resources that support their success in AP courses.

8. Are there any partnerships or collaborations between Maryland and other organizations to increase access to AP courses for immigrants?

The Maryland State Department of Education has partnerships and collaborations with various organizations, including the College Board, to increase access to AP courses for immigrants. For example, they offer training and resources for teachers working with immigrant students and provide information and support on how schools can create culturally responsive environments to facilitate the success of immigrant students in AP courses. Additionally, the Maryland State Department of Education has partnered with community organizations such as Centro de Ayuda and CASA de Maryland to promote awareness about the benefits of AP courses among immigrant families and provide resources and support for students interested in taking AP courses.

9. How does Maryland monitor the effectiveness of its funding for AP courses among immigrant students?


There are several ways in which Maryland monitors the effectiveness of its funding for AP courses among immigrant students:

1. Data Collection and Analysis: The state collects data on the number of immigrant students enrolled in AP courses and their performance on AP exams. This data is used to track the overall progress of immigrant students in AP courses compared to their non-immigrant peers.

2. Evaluation of Program Participation: Maryland also evaluates the participation and success rates of immigrant students in specific programs that target and support them, such as English Language Learner (ELL) programs or Advanced Placement Immersion programs. This allows the state to assess whether these programs are effectively preparing immigrant students for success in AP courses.

3. Feedback from Schools: The state regularly seeks feedback from schools regarding the success and challenges faced by immigrant students in AP courses. This information helps to identify areas for improvement and inform future funding decisions.

4. Surveys: Maryland may conduct surveys of both teachers and students to gather information on their experiences with AP courses, including any barriers or challenges faced by immigrant students.

5. Outreach Programs: The state may also implement outreach programs to gather feedback from parents and community members about the effectiveness of funding for AP courses among immigrant students.

6. Collaboration with Colleges and Universities: Maryland works closely with colleges and universities to track the post-secondary success of immigrant students who have taken AP courses and exams. This allows the state to evaluate whether these students are better prepared for college-level coursework.

Overall, these measures help the state to continuously monitor and assess its funding for AP courses among immigrant students, ensuring that resources are effectively allocated and student success is maximized.

10. Is there a specific process in place to support individual school districts in implementing AP courses for their immigrant student population in Maryland?


The Maryland State Department of Education offers several resources to support individual school districts in implementing AP courses for immigrant students. These include:

1. Professional Development: The department offers professional development opportunities for teachers and staff on best practices for supporting immigrant students in AP courses. This can include strategies for teaching English language learners, promoting cultural inclusivity, and addressing diversity in the classroom.

2. Guidance Documents: The department has published guidance documents and resources for schools on accommodating diverse student populations, including immigrant students. These documents provide information on supports and accommodations that can be implemented in AP courses to meet the needs of immigrant students.

3. Partnership with Universities: The Maryland State Department of Education has partnerships with several universities in the state to provide additional support for AP courses. Many of these universities offer supplemental materials, webinars, and other resources specifically geared towards supporting English language learners in advanced coursework.

4. Support from Multilingual Specialists: Some school districts have multilingual specialists who are available to provide support and guidance for immigrant students taking AP courses. These specialists can assist with language barriers or cultural challenges that may arise during the course.

5. Networking Opportunities: The department organizes networking opportunities for educators and administrators to share best practices and discuss challenges related to implementing AP courses for immigrant students. This allows school districts to learn from one another and develop effective approaches tailored to their specific student population.

Overall, while there may not be a specific process in place, the Maryland State Department of Education provides various supports and resources that individual school districts can utilize to ensure the successful implementation of AP courses for their immigrant student population.

11. Has the distribution of state funding towards AP courses for immigrants changed over time in Maryland?

12. What factors may contribute to the achievement gap between immigrant and non-immigrant students in Maryland?
13. How do educational opportunities for immigrant students in Maryland compare to other states with high immigrant populations?
14. Are there any unique barriers or challenges faced by immigrant students in accessing public education in Maryland?
15. How has the implementation of federal immigration policies affected the educational experiences of immigrant students in Maryland?

12. What steps has Maryland taken to ensure equitable distribution of funds across different regions within the state, with regards to providing access to AP courses for immigrants?


Maryland has implemented several initiatives to ensure equitable distribution of funds for AP courses for immigrants across different regions within the state. These include:

1. Funding formula: The state uses a funding formula that takes into consideration the demographics and economic conditions of each school district, including the number of immigrant students, to allocate funds for schools.

2. Targeted funds: Maryland provides targeted funds to school districts with high numbers of low-income students, which often includes immigrant students.

3. Geographic cost of education index: The state also uses a geographic cost of education index to determine the cost of providing education in different regions, which helps account for differences in costs between urban and rural areas.

4. Cluster grants: Maryland provides cluster grants to certain school districts with concentrated immigrant populations, such as Montgomery County Public Schools, to help support English language learners and other students from diverse backgrounds.

5. AP Expansion Project: The state launched the AP Expansion Project, which aims to increase access to AP courses for underrepresented student groups, including immigrants and low-income students. This project includes providing professional development opportunities for teachers and offering financial support to schools in implementing new AP courses.

6. Bridge programs: Some schools in Maryland offer bridge programs specifically designed for immigrant students who may not have had access to advanced coursework in their home country or may need additional academic support before enrolling in an AP course.

Overall, these efforts demonstrate Maryland’s commitment to ensuring equitable distribution of funds for AP courses in schools across the state, particularly those serving immigrant communities.

13. Are there any criteria or requirements that schools must meet in order to receive state funding for AP courses specifically targeting immigrants?


There are no specific criteria or requirements for schools to receive state funding for AP courses targeting immigrants. Generally, schools must meet certain criteria and comply with state regulations in order to receive any type of state funding for education programs. These may include qualifications related to teacher certification, curriculum standards, and student enrollment. However, there may be additional grants or funding opportunities available through state agencies or non-profit organizations that specifically support immigrant students and education initiatives. It is recommended that schools research and apply for these grants as applicable.

14. Does the funding allocated by Maryland towards AP courses take into account the various challenges faced by refugee and undocumented immigrant students?


Yes, Maryland’s funding for Advanced Placement (AP) courses does take into account the challenges faced by refugee and undocumented immigrant students. The state recognizes the importance of providing equal opportunities for all students to access AP courses and has initiatives in place to support underserved populations, including refugee and undocumented immigrant students.

One such initiative is the Educational Opportunity Grant (EOG) program, which provides financial assistance to low-income, minority, and at-risk students who want to take AP courses but face financial barriers. This grant covers the cost of AP exam fees, textbooks, and other course materials for eligible students. It also offers waivers for school-based or College Board-based fees.

Additionally, Maryland has various resources available for undocumented students, including scholarships and financial aid opportunities specifically designed for them. These resources help minimize the financial burden of taking AP courses and exams.

Furthermore, schools in Maryland are required to provide English language acquisition programs to support non-native English speakers, including refugee and asylum-seeking students. These programs help these students develop their language skills and prepare them for success in AP classes.

Overall, Maryland’s funding towards AP courses takes into consideration the challenges faced by refugee and undocumented immigrant students and strives to provide them with equal opportunities for academic success.

15. Have there been any notable successes seen as a result of increased state funding towards access of advanced placement coursework among minority and underserved populations such as immigrants and refugees?

Some notable successes seen as a result of increased state funding towards access of advanced placement coursework among minority and underserved populations include:

1. Increase in enrollment and participation: State funding has helped to increase awareness and access to AP courses among minority and underserved populations, leading to an increase in enrollment and participation rates. For example, in Texas, the number of Hispanic students taking AP exams has more than doubled since the state funded AP test fees for low-income students.

2. Improved academic outcomes: Studies have shown that students who take AP courses are more likely to succeed in college and have better overall academic performance. By providing funding for AP courses, states are helping to close the achievement gap for minority and underserved populations.

3. Increased college readiness: Access to AP courses also helps to prepare students for the rigors of college-level coursework. By providing funding for these courses, states are helping to ensure that all students, regardless of their background, have the chance to be academically prepared for higher education.

4. Greater diversity in advanced coursework: Increased state funding has led to a more diverse pool of students taking advanced coursework such as AP courses. This helps promote inclusivity and exposes traditionally underrepresented students to rigorous academic challenges.

5. More opportunities for credit and placement: Most colleges offer credit or placement for high scores on AP exams, which can lead to cost savings on tuition and time in completing a degree. By increasing access to AP courses through state funding, minority and underserved populations have greater opportunities to earn college credit while in high school.

6. Closing the opportunity gap: State-funded access to AP courses can help level the playing field for minority and underserved populations who may not have had previous opportunities or resources to take these courses. This can improve overall equity in education and provide more equal opportunities for future success.

Overall, increased state funding towards access of advanced placement coursework among minority and underserved populations has been linked to improved academic outcomes, increased college readiness, and more diverse participation in advanced coursework. It also helps to close the opportunity gap and promote educational equity for all students.

16. In what ways does the state evaluate whether the funds allocated towards increasing accessibility of AP courses for immigrant students have been effective?


The state evaluates the effectiveness of funds allocated towards increasing accessibility of AP courses for immigrant students through various measures, including:

1. Participation rate: One key measure is the percentage of immigrant students enrolled in AP courses compared to previous years. If the participation rate increases, it shows that more students are able to access and afford AP courses with the help of these funds.

2. Passing rate: The state also looks at the passing rate of immigrant students in AP exams. If this rate increases or remains steady, it indicates that the funds are helping students succeed in these challenging courses.

3. Demographic representation: Another important measure is whether the increase in enrollment and passing rates for AP courses among immigrant students reflects their demographic representation within the overall student population. If there is a significant increase or improvement in this representation, it shows that the funds are effectively reaching and benefiting a larger number of immigrant students.

4. Feedback from schools: The state may also gather feedback from schools and educators involved in implementing programs that increase accessibility to AP courses for immigrants. This can provide valuable insights on how effective the programs have been in supporting both teachers and students.

5. Long-term outcomes: The success of these programs may also be evaluated by tracking long-term outcomes such as college enrollment or graduation rates for immigrant students who have participated in AP courses with support from these funds.

6. Cost-efficiency: The state may also evaluate whether the cost of implementing these programs is justified by the increased participation and success rates among immigrant students. This can help ensure that resources are being used effectively and efficiently.

7. Student satisfaction: Lastly, gathering feedback directly from immigrant students who have benefited from these programs can provide insight into their overall satisfaction and experience with accessing AP courses with support from state-funded initiatives.

17. How frequently and by what means does the state measure the rate of enrollment and success of immigrant students in AP courses after receiving state funding?


The frequency and means of measuring the enrollment and success of immigrant students in AP courses may vary by state. Some states may track this data annually through surveys or reports, while others may do so on a less frequent basis. The specific method for tracking this information may also vary, but could include collecting data from individual schools or districts, analyzing performance on standardized tests, or conducting surveys of students or teachers.

Additionally, states may also use funding requirements as an indirect measure of enrollment and success for immigrant students in AP courses. For example, if a state’s funding is tied to increasing participation rates for underrepresented groups in AP courses, it would indirectly incentivize schools and districts to monitor and improve the enrollment and success of immigrant students in these courses.

Ultimately, the best way to determine how frequently and by what means a specific state measures the rate of enrollment and success of immigrant students in AP courses after receiving state funding would be to consult that state’s education department or review their education policies.

18. What are the long term goals and objectives set by Maryland regarding increased access to advanced placement opportunities for immigrant populations?

Unfortunately, we were unable to find specific long term goals and objectives set by Maryland regarding increased access to advanced placement opportunities for immigrant populations. However, here are some efforts that the state has made in recent years towards this issue:

1. The state launched a statewide initiative called ACCESS: AP (Accelerating College and Career Entry through Seamless Services: Advanced Placement) in 2017. This program aims to increase equitable access to advanced placement courses for underrepresented students, including those from immigrant communities. The initiative provides resources and support to schools and districts to expand their advanced placement offerings and ensure that all students have equal opportunity for success.

2. In 2019, Maryland passed the College Promise Scholarship Program (also known as the Near Completers and Maryland Community College Promise Scholarships). This program offers free community college tuition to residents who are near completion of an associate’s degree or who are participating in an eligible apprenticeship program. This can provide a more affordable pathway to higher education for many immigrant students.

3. The state has also implemented several initiatives focused on expanding dual enrollment opportunities for high school students, which can also benefit immigrant populations. For example, the Early College Innovation Fund provides grants to school districts for programs that allow high school students to earn college credit while still in high school.

Additionally, the website of the Maryland State Department of Education does mention that they are committed to promoting equity and eliminating opportunity gaps for all student populations, including immigrants. This commitment may overlap with efforts to increase access to advanced placement opportunities for these students.

19. Are there any plans in place to expand and improve upon current initiatives surrounding state funding for AP courses among immigrants in Maryland?

This is not a question that can be answered definitively as it would depend on the specific policies and priorities of the Maryland state government. However, advocates for immigrant communities in Maryland could continue to push for increased access to and funding for AP courses among immigrants by raising awareness of the benefits of these courses, advocating for targeted state funding initiatives, and working with lawmakers to prioritize education equity for all students. Additionally, organizations focused on immigrant education could partner with schools and communities to support immigrant students in accessing and succeeding in AP courses.

20. What role can community feedback and input play in shaping future decisions regarding state funding towards access to AP coursework among immigrant students in Maryland?


Community feedback and input can play a significant role in shaping future decisions regarding state funding towards access to AP coursework among immigrant students in Maryland. By actively engaging with and seeking input from members of the immigrant community, policymakers can gain a better understanding of the specific needs, challenges, and barriers faced by these students when it comes to accessing AP coursework.

Additionally, community input can provide valuable insights into potential solutions or strategies that could effectively address these issues. This could include suggestions for targeted outreach programs, language support services, cultural competence training for teachers and school staff, or other initiatives aimed at increasing access to AP coursework for immigrant students.

Community feedback can also help hold policymakers accountable and ensure that their decisions are informed by the actual needs and experiences of immigrant students. Regular communication and collaboration with community stakeholders can help build trust between the government and immigrant communities, leading to more effective and equitable policies.

Furthermore, involving community members in the decision-making process can promote a sense of ownership and investment among those directly impacted by state funding decisions. This sense of participation and agency is particularly important for immigrant communities who may feel marginalized or excluded from traditional power structures.

Overall, community feedback and input can serve as a powerful tool for advocating for increased access to AP coursework among immigrant students in Maryland. By listening to diverse perspectives and incorporating this input into policy discussions, policymakers can create more comprehensive, culturally responsive approaches to supporting academic success for all students.